Teaching Across Borders and Expectations: International Teachers’ Perspectives and Instructional Adaptations with Overage Students in a U.S. Alternative Education Context
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54855/ijte.26646Keywords:
International teachers; overage students; culturally responsive-sustaining pedagogy; alternative education; teacher perspectivesAbstract
This qualitative study examines how internationally trained teachers make meaning of their experiences teaching overage students in a U.S. alternative education setting. Guided by culturally responsive-sustaining pedagogy and Bakhtin’s concept of authoritative discourse, anonymous qualitative survey responses were analyzed to explore how transnational teacher identity shaped instructional practice. Findings revealed four interrelated themes: reframing assumptions about overage learners, negotiating authority and linguistic legitimacy, adopting relational pedagogical practices, and navigating emotional labor and preparation gaps. The findings suggest that teaching overage students required ongoing cultural, linguistic, and professional adaptation. This study contributes to scholarship on international teacher mobility and highlights implications for supporting internationally trained educators in high-need educational settings.
References
Adelman, N. (1986). An exploratory study of teacher and alternative certification and retraining programs. U.S. Department of Education.
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Dauber, S. L. (2003). On the success of failure: A reassessment of the effects of retention in the primary grades (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511615594
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Horsey, C. S. (1997). From first grade forward: Early foundations of high school dropout. Sociology of Education, 70(2), 87–107. https://doi.org/10.2307/2673158
Alfaro, C., & Quezada, R. L. (2010). International teacher professional development: Teacher reflections of authentic teaching and learning experiences. In R. L. Quezada (Ed.), Internationalization of teacher education: Creating globally competent teachers and teacher educators for the 21st century (pp. 147–160). Routledge.
Alliance for Excellent Education. (2007). On the path to equity: Improving the effectiveness of beginning teachers (National Report).
Alvarez-Hevia, D. M. (2017). The emotional learning of educators working in alternative provision. Educational Studies, 43(5), 564–577. http://doi.org/ 10.1080/03055698.2017.1356307
Anderson, K. P., & Ritter, G. W. (2017). Disparate use of exclusionary discipline: Evidence on inequities in school discipline from a U.S. state. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 25, 49. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.25.2787
Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The dialogic imagination: Four essays (M. Holquist, Ed.; C. Emerson & M. Holquist, Trans.). University of Texas Press.
Balfanz, R., & Byrnes, V. (2012). The importance of being in school: A report on absenteeism in the nation’s public schools. Johns Hopkins University, Center for Social Organization of Schools.
Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., & Mac Iver, D. J. (2007). Preventing student disengagement and keeping students on the graduation path in urban middle-grades schools: Early identification and effective interventions. Educational Psychologist, 42(4), 223–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520701621079
Bascia, N., & Maton, R. (2016). Teacher retention and mobility in high-needs schools. Teachers College Record.
Bascia, N., & Maton, R. (2016). Teachers’ work and innovation in alternative schools. Critical Studies in Education, 57(1), 131–141. http://doi.org/10.1080/17508487.2016.1117004
Belfield, C. R., & Levin, H. M. (2007). The economic losses from high school dropouts in California (California Dropout Research Project Report #1). UC Santa Barbara, Gevirtz Graduate School of Education. https://www.cdrp.ucsb.edu/pubs_reports.htm
Bellis, J., & Keegan, L. J. (2021). The behavioral fallout of grade retention: A longitudinal analysis of student discipline and truancy. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 29(47), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.29.5823
Bense, K. (2016). International teacher mobility and migration: A review and synthesis of the current empirical research and literature. International Journal of Educational Development, 48, 38–48. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2015.11.009
Bouray, S. F. (2021). A phenomenological study of academic retention: The lived experiences of adults who were retained in K–12 (Publication No. 3234) [Doctoral dissertation, Liberty University]. Liberty University Digital Commons. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/3234/
Bridgeland, J. M., DiIulio, J. J., & Morison, K. B. (2006). The silent epidemic: Perspectives of high school dropouts. Civic Enterprises.
Carver-Thomas, D., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). Teacher turnover: Why it matters and what we can do about it. Learning Policy Institute.
Davidson, S., Broaddus, M. S., Velie, Z., & Harry, K. (2022). Indigenous school improvement: Research findings. Region 16 Comprehensive Center, Education Northwest. ERIC Document ED660046. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED660046
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2018). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (5th ed.). SAGE.
Dillard, C. B. (2023). Culturally responsive teaching and global teacher consciousness. Theory Into Practice, 62(1), 44–55. http://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2023.2173421
Doll, J. J., Eslami, Z., & Walters, L. (2013). Understanding why students drop out of high school, according to their own reports: Are they pushed or pulled, or do they fall out? A comparative analysis of seven nationally representative studies. SAGE Open, 3(4), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013503834
Dunn, A. H. (2011). Global teachers, local classrooms: The impacts of international teachers in U.S. schools. Educational Policy.
Dunn, A. H. (2013). Teachers Without Borders?: The Hidden Consequences of International Teachers in U.S. Schools. Teachers College Press.
Education Commission of the States. (2023). 50-state comparison: K–3 policies – Third-grade reading policies. https://www.ecs.org/k-3-policies-reading-retention/
Edwards, E. J., & Noguera, P. (2022). Seeing our most vulnerable homeless students: The impact of systemic racism on the education of Black homeless youth in the United States. In C. A. Grant & E. L. Dixon (Eds.), Systemic racism in America (pp. 151–166). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003225324-10
Finn, J. D. (1989). Withdrawing from school. Review of Educational Research, 59(2), 117–142. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543059002117
Gay, G. (2018). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (3rd ed.). Teachers College Press.
Gerlinger, J., & Hipp, J. R. (2023). Schools and neighborhood crime: The effects of dropouts and high-performing schools on juvenile crime. The Social Science Journal, 60(3), 415–431.
Gillborn, D. (2005). Education policy as an act of white supremacy: Whiteness, critical race theory and education reform. Journal of Education Policy, 20(4), 485–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680930500132346
González, J. (2025). Trauma-informed methodologies: Advancing educator professional learning through international collaboration. Qualitative Research Journal. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1108/QRJ-04-2025-0144
Goodlad, J. I. (1993). School-university partnerships and partner schools. Educational Policy, 7(1), 24–39. http://doi.org/10.1177/0895904893007001003
Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J., & Noguera, P. A. (2010). The achievement gap and the discipline gap: Two sides of the same coin? Educational Researcher, 39(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09357621
Guha, R., Hyler, M. E., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2016). The teacher residency: An innovative model for preparing teachers. Learning Policy Institute.
Hammond, Z. (2015). Culturally responsive teaching and the brain. Corwin.
Heilig, J. V., McNeil, L. M. S., Coppola, E., & Radigan, J. (2008). Avoidable losses: High-stakes accountability and the dropout crisis. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 16(3), 1–35. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ800872
Holmes, C. T. (1989). Grade level retention effects: A meta-analysis of research studies. Research in Educational Policy and Management, 1(1), 19–26.
Hong, G., & Yu, B. (2007). Early-grade retention and children's reading and math learning in elementary years. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 29(4), 239–261. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373707309073
Hubbard, K. R. (2023). Left behind: Adult Black males' perspectives of education and the social-emotional impact following grade retention (Publication No. 30448756) [Doctoral dissertation, Northcentral University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. https://search.proquest.com/openview/739111b815bd279310e3e0d2b3689803
Hughes, J. N., West, S. G., Kim, H., & Bauer, S. (2010). Retention in first grade: Children at risk for academic failure. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(1), 17–30.
Jackson, S., & Clayton, D. (2021). Beyond “one size fits all”: Rethinking teacher preparation for intersectional student identities. Teaching and Teacher Education, 104, 103386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103386
Jacob, B. A. (2005). Accountability, incentives and behavior: The impact of high-stakes testing in the Chicago Public Schools. Journal of Public Economics, 89(5–6), 761–796. http://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2004.06.007
Jenkins, D. A. (2022). Feeling Black: Black Urban High School Youth and Visceral Geographies of Anti-Black Racism. Equity & Excellence in Education, 55(3), 231–243.
Jimerson, S. R. (2001). Meta-analysis of grade retention research: Implications for practice in the 21st century. School Psychology Review, 30(3), 420–437. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2001.12086124
Jimerson, S. R., & Renshaw, T. L. (2012). Retention and social promotion: Research and implications for policy. In A. Thomas & P. Harrison (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 207–218). National Association of School Psychologists.
Kim, H., & White, R. N. (2021). The diminishing returns of grade retention: Examining longitudinal achievement trajectories in elementary school. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 43(1), 120–140. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373720973203
Kwok, A., Svajda-Hardy, M., Hill-Jackson, V., & Hutchins, S. (2024). Exploring a teacher residency as a recruitment and retention strategy for high-need districts. The Journal of Education, 204(2), 173–183. http://doi.org/10.1177/00220574231196558
Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465–491.
Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465–491. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312032003465
Ladson-Billings, G. (1998). “Just what is Critical Race Theory and what’s it doing in a nice field like education?” International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11(1), 7–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/095183998236863
Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). From the achievement gap to the education debt: Understanding achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X035007003
Ladson-Billings, G. (2021). Culturally relevant pedagogy 2.0: a.k.a. the remix. Harvard Educational Review, 91(1), 102–113. https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-91.1.102
Lee, J. H. (2015). Challenges of Internationally Educated Teachers in the U.S. Public School System. International Education Studies, 8(3), 44. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v8n3p44
Lee-St. John, T. J., Walsh, M. E., Raczek, A. E., Vuilleumier, Caroline E., Foley, C., Heberle, A., Sibley, E., & Dearing, E. (2018). The long-term impact of systemic student support in elementary school: Reducing high school dropout. AERA Open, 4(4), 1–16. doi.org
Lindstrom, L., Doren, B., & Zane, C. (2022). Strategies for supporting youth with disabilities in secondary transition: Promising practices. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 45(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143421990802
Mancuso, S., Roberts, L., & White, G. (2010). Teacher migration and the global education labour market. International Journal of Educational Development, 30(4), 378–387.
Martell, C. C., & Stevens, K. M. (2021). Justice-oriented teaching: Preparing educators to disrupt systemic inequities. Teacher Education Quarterly, 48(1), 45–68. https://www.teqjournal.org/
Mawhinney, H., & Xu, F. (1997). Restructuring the professional identity of foreign-trained teachers in Ontario schools. TESOL Quarterly, 31(3), 632–639. http://doi.org/ 10.2307/3587847
Migration Policy Institute. (2019). Can immigrant professionals help reduce teacher shortages in the United States? Migration Policy Institute.
Miller, P. C., & Endo, H. (2004). Understanding and meeting the needs of ESL students. Phi Delta Kappan.
Milner, H. R. (2023). Start where you are, but don’t stay there: Understanding diversity, opportunity gaps, and teaching in today’s classrooms (2nd ed.). Harvard Education Press.
Modan, N. (2019, March 18). When the clock is ticking: Educators rethink how they serve overage students. Education Dive. https://www.educationdive.com/news/when-the-clock-is-ticking-educators-rethink-how-they-serve-overage-students/550401/
Nagaoka, J., & Roderick, M. (2004). Ending social promotion: The effects of retention. Consortium on Chicago School Research.
Full Report
National Conference of State Legislatures. (2023). Third grade reading policies. https://www.ncsl.org/education/early-literacy
National Research Council. (2011). Incentives and test-based accountability in education (M. Hout & E. P. Hastings, Eds.). The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/12521
New American Economy. (2017). Untapped talent: The costs of brain waste among highly skilled immigrants in the United States. https://www.newamericaneconomy.org
Noguera, P. A. (2003). The trouble with Black boys: The role and influence of environmental and cultural factors on the academic performance of African American males. Urban Education, 38(4), 431–459. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085903038004005
Papay, J. P., Bacher-Hicks, A., Page, L. C., & Marinell, W. H. (2017). The challenge of teacher retention in urban schools: Evidence of variation from a cross-site analysis. Educational Researcher, 46(8), 434–448. http://doi.org/ 10.3102/0013189X17735812
Paris, D. (2012). Culturally sustaining pedagogy: A needed change in stance, terminology, and practice. Educational Researcher, 41(3), 93–97. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X12441244
Paris, D., & Alim, H. S. (2022). Culturally sustaining pedagogies: Teaching and learning for justice in a changing world (2nd ed.). Teachers College Press. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/101156/9781040364680.pdf?sequence=1#page=12
Paris, D., & Alim, H. S. (Eds.). (2017). Culturally sustaining pedagogies: Teaching and learning for justice in a changing world. Teachers College Press.
Peixoto, F., Sanches, C., Mata, L., & Monteiro, V. (2016). “How do you feel about school?”: The role of achievement and academic self‐concept in students’ wellbeing. Psychology in the Schools, 53(9), 955–971. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21967
Pruitt, A. S., & Mitchell, J. B. (2023). Beyond compliance: Teacher learning through culturally responsive inquiry communities. Equity & Excellence in Education, 56(2), 145–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2023.2179234
Reinke, W. M., Stormont, M., Herman, K. C., Puri, R., & Goel, N. (2011). Supporting children's mental health in schools: Teacher perceptions of needs, roles, and barriers. School Psychology Quarterly, 26(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022714 [1, 2]
Ressa, T. W., & Andrews, A. (2022). High school dropout dilemma in America and the importance of reformation of education systems to empower all students. International Journal of Modern Education Studies, 6(2), 423–447. https://doi.org/10.51383/ijonmes.2022.234
Roderick, M. (1994). Grade retention and school dropout: Policy debate and research questions. Phi Delta Kappa Research Bulletin, 15.
Rumberger, R. W. (2011). Dropping out: Why students drop out of high school and what can be done about it. Harvard University Press.
Saldaña, J. (2016). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (3rd ed.). SAGE.
Santamaria, L. J., & Santamaria, A. P. (2015). Counteracting Educational Injustice with Applied Critical Leadership: Culturally Responsive Practices Promoting Sustainable Change. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 17(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.18251/ijme.v17i1.1013
Shah, N., & Cunningham, M. (2019). International teacher recruitment and global teacher labor markets. Educational Policy.
Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C.-G., Rausch, M. K., May, S. L., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40(1), 85–107.
Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. SAGE.
Taylor, E., & El-Amin, A. (2022). Beyond the potlucks and posters: Culturally responsive pedagogy for educational justice. Equity & Excellence in Education, 55(2), 120–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2022.2042341
Thomas, D. T. W. (2024). Perspectives of overage graduates: Issues that affected their schooling. Florida Journal of Educational Research, 62(1). https://journals.flvc.org/fjer/article/view/134850
Wanzare, Z. (2011). Strategies for introducing beginning teachers into the teaching profession. Academic Leadership: The Online Journal, 9(3), Article 20.
Welton, A., & Williams, M. (2015). Accountability strain, college readiness drain: Sociopolitical tensions involved in maintaining a college-going culture in a high “minority,” high-poverty, Texas high school. The High School Journal, 98(2), 181–204. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/12/article/566181
Winters, M. A., & Greene, J. P. (2012). The medium-run effects of Florida's test-based promotion policy. Education Finance and Policy, 7(3), 305–330. http://doi.org/10.1162/EDFP_a_00068
Wolcott, H. F. (1994). Transforming qualitative data: Description, analysis, and interpretation. SAGE Publications.
Xia, C., & Glennie, E. (2005). Grade retention: A flawed education strategy. Center for Child and Family Policy, Duke University.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Dione R. Thomas

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The copyright of all articles published in the International Journal of TESOL & Education (ijte) remains with the Authors, i.e. Authors retain full ownership of their article. Permitted third-party reuse of the open access articles is defined by the applicable Creative Commons (CC) end-user license which is accepted by the Authors upon submission of their paper. All articles in the ijte are published under the CC BY-NC 4.0 license, meaning that end users can freely share an article (i.e. copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format) and adapt it (i.e. remix, transform and build upon the material) on the condition that proper attribution is given (i.e. appropriate credit, a link to the applicable license and an indication if any changes were made; all in such a way that does not suggest that the licensor endorses the user or the use) and the material is only used for non-commercial purposes.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal the right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository, in a journal or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.









